What Is Buddhism?
Introduction
For more than 2,500 years, the religion we know today as
Buddhism has been the primary inspiration behind many successful
civilizations, a source of great cultural achievements, and a
lasting and meaningful guide to the very purpose of life for
millions of people. Today, large numbers of men and women from
diverse backgrounds throughout the world are following the
Teachings of the Buddha. So who was the Buddha and what are his
teachings?
The Buddha
The man who was to become the Buddha was born Siddhattha Gotama
around 2,600 years ago as a prince of a small territory near what
is now the Indian-Nepalese border. Though he was raised in splendid
comfort, enjoying aristocratic status, no amount of material
pleasure could conceal life's imperfections from the unusually
inquisitive young man. At the age of 29 he left wealth and family
to search for a deeper meaning in the secluded forests and remote
mountains of Northeast India. He studied under the wisest religious
teachers and philosophers of his time, learning all they had to
offer, but they could not provide the answers he was seeking. He
then struggled with the path of self-mortification, taking that
practice to the extremes of asceticism, but still to no avail.
Then at the age of 35, on the full moon night of May, he sat
beneath the branches of what is now known as the Bodhi Tree, in a
secluded grove by the banks of the river Neranjara, and developed
his mind in deep and luminous, tranquil meditation. Using the
extraordinary clarity of such a mind, with its sharp penetrative
power generated by states of deep inner stillness, he turned his
attention to investigate the truth of mind, universe and life. Thus
he gained the Supreme Enlightenment experience and from then on he
was known as the Buddha, the Awakened One.
His Enlightenment consisted of the most profound and
all-embracing insight into the nature of mind and all phenomena.
This Enlightenment was not a revelation from some divine being, but
a discovery made by himself based on the deepest levels of
meditation and the clearest experience of mind. It meant that he
was free from the shackles of craving, ill-will and delusion, that
all forms of inner suffering had been eliminated and that he had
acquired unshakeable peace.
The Teachings of the Buddha
Having realised the goal of Perfect Enlightenment, the Buddha
spent the next 45 years teaching a path which, when diligently
followed, will take anyone regardless of race, class or gender to
the same Perfect Enlightenment. The teachings about this path are
called the Dhamma, literally meaning the nature of all things or
the truth underlying existence. It is beyond the scope of this
pamphlet to present a thorough description of all these teachings,
but the following seven topics will give you an overview of what
the Buddha taught.
1. The Way of Inquiry
The Buddha warned strongly against blind faith and encouraged
the way of truthful inquiry. He pointed out the danger in
fashioning one's beliefs merely on the following grounds: hearsay,
tradition, because many others say it is so, the authority of
ancient scriptures, the word of a supernatural being or out of
trust in one's teachers, elders or priests. Instead one maintains
an open mind and thoroughly investigates one's own experience of
life. When one sees for oneself that a particular view agrees with
both experience and reason and leads to the happiness of one and
all, then one should accept that view and live up to it!
This principle of course also applies to the Buddha's own
teachings. They should be considered and inquired into using the
mental clarity born of meditation. As one's meditation deepens, one
eventually sees these teachings for oneself with insight, and only
then do they become one's own truth that give blissful
liberation.
The traveller on the way of inquiry needs to be tolerant.
Tolerance does not mean that one embraces every idea or view but
that one doesn't get angry at what one can't accept. Further along
the journey what one initially disagreed with might be seen to be
true. So in the spirit of tolerant inquiry, here are some of the
Buddha's basic teachings.
2. The Four Noble Truths
The main teaching of the Buddha focuses not on philosophical
speculation about a Creator God or the origin of the universe, nor
on reaching a heaven world ever after. The teaching instead is
centred on the down-to-earth reality of human suffering and the
urgent need to find lasting relief from all forms of discontent.
The Buddha gave the simile of a man shot by a poison-tipped arrow
who, before he would accept a doctor to treat him, first demanded
to know who shot the arrow, his social standing, where he was from,
what sort of bow he used, what the arrow was made of ... This
foolish man would surely die before his questions could be
answered. In the same way, the Buddha said, our most urgent need is
to find lasting relief from recurrent discontent which robs us of
happiness and leaves us in strife. Philosophical speculations are
of secondary importance and are best left until after one has
trained the mind in meditation to the stage where one has the
ability to examine the matter clearly and see the truth for
oneself.
Thus the central teaching of the Buddha, around which all his
other teachings revolve, is the Four Noble Truths:
1. All beings, human and otherwise, are afflicted with all sorts
of disappointments, sadness, discomfort, anxiety etc. In short they
are subject to suffering.
2. The cause of this suffering is craving, born of the illusion
of a 'soul' (see below, topic 7).
3. Suffering has a final end in the experience of Enlightenment
(Nibbana) which is the complete letting go of the illusion of
'soul' and the consequent ending of craving and ill will.
4. This peaceful and blissful Enlightenment is achieved through
a gradual training, a path called the Middle Way, or the Eightfold
Path.
It would be mistaken to label this teaching as 'pessimistic' on
the grounds that it begins by focusing on suffering. Rather,
Buddhism is 'realistic' in that it unflinchingly faces up to the
truth of life's many sufferings, and it is 'optimistic' in that it
shows a final end to the problem: Nibbana - Enlightenment in this
very life! Those who have achieved this ultimate peace are
inspiring examples who demonstrate once and for all that Buddhism
is far from pessimistic but is a path to true happiness.
3. The Middle Way or Eightfold Path
The way to the end of all suffering is called the Middle Way
because it avoids the two extremes of sensual indulgence and
self-mortification. Only when the body is in reasonable comfort but
not overindulged, does the mind have the clarity and strength to
meditate deeply and discover the truth. This Middle Way consists of
the diligent cultivation of virtue, meditation and wisdom, which
are explained in more detail as the Eightfold Path:
1. Right Understanding
2. Right Thought
3. Right Speech
4. Right Action
5. Right Livelihood
6. Right Effort
7. Right Mindfulness
8. Right Concentration
('Right' in the sense of being conducive to happiness and
Enlightenment.)
Right Speech, Action and Livelihood constitute the training in
virtue or morality. For a practising lay Buddhist it consists of
maintaining the five Buddhist precepts, which are to refrain
from:
1. Deliberately causing the death of any living being;
2. Intentionally taking for one's own the property of
another;
3. Sexual misconduct, in particular adultery;
4. Lying and breaking promises;
5. Drinking alcohol and taking stupefying drugs which lead to a
weakening of mindfulness and moral judgement.
Right Effort, Mindfulness and Concentration refer to the
practice of meditation, which purifies the mind through the
experience of blissful states of inner stillness and empowers the
mind to penetrate the meaning of life through profound moments of
insight.
Right Understanding and Thought are the manifestations of
Buddha-Wisdom which ends all suffering, transforms the personality
and produces unshakeable serenity and tireless compassion.
According to the Buddha, without perfecting the practice of
virtue it is impossible to perfect meditation, and without
perfecting meditation it is impossible to arrive at Enlightenment
Wisdom. Thus the Buddhist path is a gradual one, a middle way
consisting of virtue, meditation and wisdom, explained in the
Eightfold Path and leading to happiness and liberation.
4. Kamma
Kamma means 'action'. According to the law of kamma there are
inescapable results of our intentional actions. There are deeds of
body, speech and mind that lead to one's own harm, to others' harm,
or to the harm of both. Such deeds are called bad or unwholesome
kamma. They are motivated by craving, ill will or delusion, and
because they bring painful results they should not be done.
There are also deeds of body, speech and mind that lead to one's
own well-being, to the well-being of others, or to the well-being
of both. Such deeds are called good or wholesome kamma. They are
motivated by generosity, compassion or wisdom, and because they
bring pleasant results they should be done as often as
possible.
Much of what one experiences is the result of one's own previous
kamma. Thus when misfortune occurs, instead of blaming someone
else, one can look for faults in one's own past conduct. If a fault
is found, the experience of its consequences will make one more
careful in the future. When happiness occurs, instead of taking it
for granted, one can look for the past good kamma which caused it.
If one can find such a cause, the experience of its pleasant
results will encourage more good kamma in the future.
The Buddha pointed out that no being whatsoever, divine or
otherwise, has the power to stop the consequences of good and bad
kamma. The fact that one reaps just what one sows gives the
Buddhist a powerful incentive to avoid all forms of bad kamma and
do as much good kamma as possible.
Though one cannot escape the results of bad kamma one can lessen
their severity. A spoon of salt mixed in a glass of water makes the
whole glass very salty, whereas the same spoon of salt mixed in a
freshwater lake hardly changes the taste of the water at all.
Similarly, the results of bad kamma in a person habitually doing
only a small amount of good is painful indeed, whereas the result
of the same bad kamma in a person habitually doing a great deal of
good is only felt mildly.
This natural law of kamma thus becomes the force behind, and the
reason for, the Buddhist practice of morality and compassion in our
society.
5. Rebirth
The Buddha clearly remembered many of his past lives. Even today
many Buddhist monks and nuns, and others also, remember their past
lives. Such a strong memory is a result of deep meditation. For
those who remember their past lives rebirth becomes an established
fact which puts this life in a meaningful perspective.
The law of kamma can only be understood in the framework of many
lifetimes because it sometimes takes this long for kamma to bear
its fruit. Thus kamma and rebirth offer a plausible explanation to
the obvious inequalities of birth - why some are born into great
wealth whereas others are born into pathetic poverty; why some
children enter this world healthy and full-limbed whereas others
enter it deformed and diseased. The painful results of bad kamma
should not be regarded as punishment for evil deeds but as lessons
from which to learn. For example, how much better to learn about
the need for generosity than to be reborn among the poor!
Rebirth takes place not only within the human realm. The Buddha
pointed out that the realm of human beings is but one among many.
There are many separate heavenly realms and grim lower realms too,
including the realm of animals and the realm of ghosts. Not only
can we go to any of these realms in our next life, but we may have
come from any of these realms into our present life. This explains
a common objection against rebirth: "How can there be rebirth when
there are 10 times as many people alive today
as there were a century ago?" The answer is that people alive
today have come from many different realms.
Understanding that we come and go between different realms,
gives us more respect and compassion for the beings in these
realms. It is unlikely, for example, that one would exploit animals
when one has seen the link of rebirth that connects them with
us.
6. No Creator God
The Buddha also pointed out that no God or priest nor any other
kind of being has the power to interfere in the working out of
someone else's kamma. Buddhism, therefore, teaches individuals to
take full responsibility for themselves. For example, if you want
to be wealthy then be generous, trustworthy and diligent, and if
you want to live in a heavenly realm then always be kind to others.
There is no God to ask favours from, or to put it another way,
there is no corruption possible in the workings of the law of
kamma.
Do Buddhists believe that a Supreme Being created the universe?
Buddhists would first ask which universe you mean. This present
universe, from the moment of the 'big bang' up to now, is but one
among a countless number in Buddhist cosmology. When one universe
cycle ends another begins, again and again, according to impersonal
law and without discoverable beginning. A Creator God is redundant
in this scheme.
No being is a Supreme Saviour, because gods, humans, animals and
all other beings are subject to the law of kamma. Even the Buddha
had no power to save - he could only point out the truth for the
wise to see for themselves. Everyone must take responsibility for
their own future well-being, and it is dangerous to give that
responsibility to anyone else.
7. The Illusion of a 'Soul'
The Buddha taught that there is no 'soul', no essential and
permanent core to a living being. Instead, that which we call a
'living being', human or otherwise, can be seen to be but a
temporary coming-together of many parts and activities - when
complete it is called a 'living being', but when the parts have
separated and the activities have ceased it is not called a 'living
being' anymore. Like a computer assembled of many parts and
activities, only when it is complete and performs coherent tasks is
it called a 'computer', but when the computer is taken apart and
the activities cease it is no longer called a 'computer'. No
essential and permanent core can be found which we can truly call
the 'computer', and just so no essential and permanent core can be
found in a living being which we can call the 'soul'.
Yet rebirth still occurs without a 'soul'. Consider this simile:
on a Buddhist shrine a candle is burnt low and is about to go out.
A monk takes a new candle and lights it from the old one. The old
candle goes out but the new candle burns bright. What went across
form the old candle to the new one? There was a causal link but no
'thing' went across! In the same way, there was a causal link
between your previous life and your present life, but no 'soul'
went across.
Indeed, the illusion of a 'soul' is said by the Buddha to be the
root cause of all human suffering. The illusion of 'soul' manifests
as the 'ego'. The natural unstoppable function of the ego is to
control. Big egos want to control the world, average egos try to
control their immediate surroundings of home, family and workplace,
and all egos strive to control what they take to be their own body
and mind. Such control manifests as desire and aversion, and it
results in a lack of both inner peace and outer harmony. It is this
ego that seeks to acquire possessions, manipulate others and
exploit the environment. Its aim is its own happiness but it
invariably produces suffering. It craves for satisfaction but
experiences discontent. Such deep-rooted suffering cannot come to
an end until one sees, through insight based on deep and powerful
meditation, that the idea of 'me and mine' is no more than a
mirage.
These seven topics are a sample of what the Buddha taught. Now,
to complete this brief sketch of Buddhism, let's look at how these
teachings are practised today.
Types of Buddhism
One could say that there is only one type of Buddhism and that
is the huge collection of teachings originally given by the Buddha.
These teachings are found in the Pali Canon, the ancient scriptures
of Theravada Buddhism, widely accepted as the oldest and most
reliable record of the Buddha's word. Theravada Buddhism is the
dominant religion in Thailand, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Cambodia and
Laos.
Between 100 and 200 years after the passing away of the Buddha,
the Sangha (the monastic community) split over the question,
apparently, of who has influence in Sangha affairs. A controversy
over some monastic rules had been decided by a committee of mostly
Arahants (fully Enlightened monks or nuns) against the views of the
majority. The overruled majority were not reconciled to this
decision and they probably viewed the Arahants as excessively
influential. The disaffected monks subsequently lowered the exalted
status of the Arahant and eventually raised in its place the ideal
of the Bodhisattva (an unenlightened being said to be in training
to become a Buddha). This group of monks and nuns was first known
as the 'Maha Sangha', meaning the 'great (part of the) monastic
community'.
After centuries of development, previously unknown scriptures
appeared, attempting to give a philosophical justification to the
superiority of the Bodhisattva over the Arahant. The adherents to
these new scriptures called themselves the 'Mahayana'. Mahayana
retained most of the original teachings of the Buddha (in the
Chinese scriptures these are known as the 'Agama'), but these core
teachings were mostly overwhelmed by layers of expansive
interpretations and new ideas.
The Buddhism which established itself in China, and which is
still vibrant in Taiwan, reflects the earlier development of
Mahayana. From China Mahayana spread to Vietnam, Korea and Japan,
one result of which was the emergence of Zen. The Buddhism in Tibet
and Mongolia is a still later development, usually referred to as
'Vajrayana'.
Buddhism's Relevance in the World Today
Today, Buddhism continues to gain ever wider acceptance in many
lands far beyond its original home. People throughout the world,
through their own careful choice, are adopting Buddhism's peaceful,
compassionate and responsible ways.
The Buddhist teaching of the law of kamma offers people a just,
incorruptible foundation and reason for living a moral life. It is
easy to see how a wider embracing of the law of kamma would lead
any country towards a stronger, more caring and virtuous
society.
The teaching of rebirth places this present short lifetime of
ours in a broader perspective, giving more meaning to the vital
events of birth and death. The understanding of rebirth removes so
much of the tragedy and grief surrounding death and turns our
attention to the quality of a life, rather than its mere
length.
From the very beginning the practice of meditation has been at
the very heart of the Buddhist way. Today, meditation grows
increasingly popular as its proven benefits to both mental and
physical well-being are becoming more widely known. When stress is
shown to be such a major cause of human suffering, the quieting
practice of meditation becomes ever more valued.
Today's world is too small and vulnerable for us to live angrily
and alone, and thus tolerance, love and compassion are so very
important. These qualities of mind, essential for happiness, are
formally developed in Buddhist meditation and then diligently put
into practice in everyday life.
Forgiveness, gentleness, harmlessness and peaceful compassion
are the well-known 'trademarks' of Buddhism, and they are given
freely and broadly to all beings, including animals of course, and
also, most importantly, to oneself. There is no place for dwelling
in guilt or self-hatred in Buddhism, not even a place for feeling
guilty about feeling guilty!
Teachings and practices such as these are what bring about
qualities of gentle kindness, unshakeable serenity and wisdom,
identified with the Buddhist religion for over 25 centuries and
sorely needed in today's world. In all its long history, no war has
ever been fought in the name of Buddhism. It is this peace and
tolerance, growing out of a profound yet reasonable philosophy,
that makes the Buddha's message timeless and always vitally
relevant.
