Nature's survival tips

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WATER PROCUREMENT

PART III : WATER PURIFICATION

Rainwater collected in clean containers or in plants is usually safe for drinking. However, purify water from lakes, ponds, swamps, springs, or streams, especially the water near human settlements or in the tropics.

When possible, purify all water you got from vegetation or from the ground by using iodine or chlorine, or by boiling.

Purify water by:

* Using water purification tablets. (Follow the directions provided.)

* Placing 5 drops of 2 percent tincture of iodine in a canteen full of clear water. If the canteen is full of cloudy or cold water, use 10 drops. (Let the canteen of water stand for 30 minutes before drinking.)

* Boiling water for 1 minute at sea level, adding 1 minute for each additional 300 meters above sea level, or boil for 10 minutes no matter where you are.

By drinking nonpotable water you may contract diseases or swallow organisms that can harm you. Examples of such diseases or organisms are--

* Dysentery. Severe, prolonged diarrhea with bloody stools, fever, and weakness.

* Cholera and typhoid. You may be susceptible to these diseases regardless of inoculations.

* Flukes. Stagnant, polluted water--especially in tropical areas--often contains blood flukes. If you swallow flukes, they will bore into the bloodstream, live as parasites, and cause disease.

* Leeches. If you swallow a leech, it can hook onto the throat passage or inside the nose. It will suck blood, create a wound, and move to another area. Each bleeding wound may become infected.

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WATER PROCUREMENT

PART IV : WATER FILTRATION DEVICES

If the water you find is also muddy, stagnant, and foul smelling, you can clear the water:

* By placing it in a container and letting it stand for 12 hours.

* By pouring it through a filtering system.

Note: These procedures only clear the water and make it more palatable. You will have to purify it.

To make a filtering system, place several centimeters or layers of filtering material such as sand, crushed rock, charcoal, or cloth in bamboo, a hollow log, or an article of clothing (Figure 6-9).

Remove the odor from water by adding charcoal from your fire. Let the water stand for 45 minutes before drinking it.

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FIRECRAFT

In many survival situations, the ability to start a fire can make the difference between living and dying. Fire can fulfill many needs. It can provide warmth and comfort. It not only cooks and preserves food, it also provides warmth in the form of heated food that saves calories our body normally uses to produce body heat. You can use fire to purify water, sterilize bandages, signal for rescue, and provide protection from animals. It can be a psychological boost by providing peace of mind and companionship. You can also use fire to produce tools and weapons.

Fire can cause problems, as well. The enemy can detect the smoke and light it produces. It can cause forest fires or destroy essential equipment. Fire can also cause burns carbon monoxide poisoning when used in shelters.

Remember weigh your need for fire against your need to avoid enemy detection.

PART I : BASIC FIRE PRINCIPLES

To build a fire, it helps to understand the basic principles of a fire. Fuel (in a nongaseous state) does not burn directly. When you apply heat to a fuel, it produces a gas. This gas, combined with oxygen in the air, burns.

Understanding the concept of the fire triangle is very important in correctly constructing and maintaining a fire. The three sides of the triangle represent air, heat, and fuel. If you remove any of these, the fire will go out. The correct ratio of these components is very important for a fire to burn at its greatest capability. The only way to learn this ratio is to practice.

Based on 'U.S. Army Survival Manual', a public domain work published by the U.S. Department of Defense that is available for sale at Amazon.com.

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FIRECRAFT

PART II : SITE SELECTION AND PREPARATION

You will have to decide what site and arrangement to use. Before building a fire consider :

- The area (terrain and climate) in which you are operating.
- The materials and tools available.
- Time: how much time you have?
- Need: why you need a fire?
- Security: how close is the enemy?

Look for a dry spot that :

- Is protected from the wind.
- Is suitably placed in relation to your shelter (if any).
- Will concentrate the heat in the direction you desire.
- Has a supply of wood or other fuel available. (See Figure 7-4 for types of material you can use.)

If you are in a wooded or brush-covered area, clear the brush and scrape the surface soil from the spot you have selected. Clear a circle at least 1 meter in diameter so there is little chance of the fire spreading.

If time allows, construct a fire wall using logs or rocks. This wall will help to reflector direct the heat where you want it (Figure 7-1). It will also reduce flying sparks and cut down on the amount of wind blowing into the fire. However, you will need enough wind to keep the fire burning.

CAUTION
Do not use wet or porous rocks as they may explode when heated.

In some situations, you may find that an underground fireplace will best meet your needs. It conceals the fire and serves well for cooking food. To make an underground fireplace or Dakota fire hole (Figure 7-2) :

- Dig a hole in the ground.

- On the upwind side of this hole, poke or dig a large connecting hole for ventilation.

- Build your fire in the hole as illustrated.

If you are in a snow-covered area, use green logs to make a dry base for your fire (Figure 7-3). Trees with wrist-sized trunks are easily broken in extreme cold. Cut or break several green logs and lay them side by side on top of the snow. Add one or two more layers. Lay the top layer of logs opposite those below it.

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FIRECRAFT

PART III : FIRE MATERIAL SELECTION

You need three types of materials (Figure 7-4) to build a fire--tinder, kindling, and fuel.

Tinder is dry material that ignites with little heat--a spark starts a fire. The tinder must be absolutely dry to be sure just a spark will ignite it. If you only have a device that generates sparks, charred cloth will be almost essential. It holds a spark for long periods, allowing you to put tinder on the hot area to generate a small flame. You can make charred cloth by heating cotton cloth until it turns black, but does not burn. Once it is black, you must keep it in an airtight container to keep it dry. Prepare this cloth well in advance of any survival situation. Add it to your individual survival kit.

Kindling is readily combustible material that you add to the burning tinder. Again, this material should be absolutely dry to ensure rapid burning. Kindling increases the fire's temperature so that it will ignite less combustible material.

Fuel is less combustible material that burns slowly and steadily once ignited.

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FIRECRAFT

PART IV : HOW TO BUILD A FIRE

There are several methods for laying a fire, each of which has advantages. The situation you find yourself in will determine which fire to use.

Tepee
To make this fire (Figure 7-5), arrange the tinder and a few sticks of kindling in the shape of a tepee or cone. Light the center. As the tepee burns, the outside logs will fall inward, feeding the fire. This type of fire burns well even with wet wood.

Lean-To
To lay this fire (Figure 7-5), push a green stick into the ground at a 30-degree angle. Point the end of the stick in the direction of the wind. Place some tinder deep under this lean-to stick. Lean pieces of kindling against the lean-to stick. Light the tinder. As the kindling catches fire from the tinder, add more kindling.

Cross-Ditch
To use this method (Figure 7-5), scratch a cross about 30 centimeters in size in the ground. Dig the cross 7.5 centimeters deep. Put a large wad of tinder in the middle of the cross. Build a kindling pyramid above the tinder. The shallow ditch allows air to sweep under the tinder to provide a draft.

Pyramid
To lay this fire (Figure 7-5), place two small logs or branches parallel on the ground. Place a solid layer of small logs across the parallel logs. Add three or four more layers of logs or branches, each layer smaller than and at a right angle to the layer below it. Make a starter fire on top of the pyramid. As the starter fire burns, it will ignite the logs below it. This gives you a fire that burns downward, requiring no attention during the night.

There are several other ways to lay a fire that are quite effective. Your situation and the material available in the area may make another method more suitable.

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FIRECRAFT

PART V : HOW TO LIGHT A FIRE

Always light your fire from the upwind side. Make sure to lay your tinder, kindling, and fuel so that your fire will burn as long as you need it. Igniters provide the initial heat required to start the tinder burning. They fall into two categories: modern methods and primitive methods.

Modern Methods
Modem igniters use modem devices--items we normally think of to start a fire.

Matches
Make sure these matches are waterproof. Also, store them in a waterproof container along with a dependable striker pad.

Convex Lens
Use this method (Figure 7-6) only on bright, sunny days. The lens can come from binoculars, camera, telescopic sights, or magnifying glasses. Angle the lens to concentrate the sun's rays on the tinder. Hold the lens over the same spot until the tinder begins to smolder. Gently blow or fan the tinder into flame, and apply it to the fire lay.

Metal Match
Place a flat, dry leaf under your tinder with a portion exposed. Place the tip of the metal match on the dry leaf, holding the metal match in one hand and a knife in the other. Scrape your knife against the metal match to produce sparks. The sparks will hit the tinder. When the tinder starts to smolder, proceed as above.

Battery
Use a battery to generate a spark. Use of this method depends on the type of battery available. Attach a wire to each terminal. Touch the ends of the bare wires together next to the tinder so the sparks will ignite it.

Gunpowder
Often, you will have ammunition with your equipment. If so, carefully extract the bullet from the shell casing, and use the gunpowder as tinder. A spark will ignite the powder. Be extremely careful when extracting the bullet from the case.

Primitive Methods
Primitive igniters are those attributed to our early ancestors.

Flint and Steel
The direct spark method is the easiest of the primitive methods to use. The flint and steel method is the most reliable of the direct spark methods. Strike a flint or other hard, sharp-edged rock edge with a piece of carbon steel (stainless steel will not produce a good spark). This method requires a loose-jointed wrist and practice. When a spark has caught in the tinder, blow on it. The spark will spread and burst into flames.

Fire-Plow
The fire-plow (Figure 7-7) is a friction method of ignition. You rub a hardwood shaft against a softer wood base. To use this method, cut a straight groove in the base and plow the blunt tip of the shaft up and down the groove. The plowing action of the shaft pushes out small particles of wood fibers. Then, as you apply more pressure on each stroke, the friction ignites the wood particles.

Bow and Drill
The technique of starting a fire with a bow and drill (Figure 7-8 ) is simple, but you must exert much effort and be persistent to produce a fire. You need the following items to use this method:

To use the bow and drill, first prepare the fire lay. Then place a bundle of tinder under the V-shaped cut in the fire board. Place one foot on the fire board. Loop the bowstring over the drill and place the drill in the precut depression on the fire board. Place the socket, held in one hand, on the top of the drill to hold it in position. Press down on the drill and saw the bow back and forth to twirl the drill (Figure 7-8 ). Once you have established a smooth motion, apply more downward pressure and work the bow faster. This action will grind hot black powder into the tinder, causing a spark to catch. Blow on the tinder until it ignites.

Note: Primitive fire-building methods are exhaustive and require practice to ensure success.

HELPFUL HINTS

Use nonaromatic seasoned hardwood for fuel, if possible.
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Collect kindling and tinder along the trail.
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Add insect repellent to the tinder.
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Keep the firewood dry.
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Dry damp firewood near the fire.
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Bank the fire to keep the coals alive overnight.
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Carry lighted punk, when possible.
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Be sure the fire is out before leaving camp.
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Do not select wood lying on the ground. It may appear to be dry but generally doesn't provide enough friction.

Based on 'U.S. Army Survival Manual', a public domain work published by the U.S. Department of Defense that is available for sale at Amazon.com

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Mosquitoes, The why and how they find and bite you!

Now let me just say right off the bat, that I am in no way a mosquito expert! I dont have any special training nor am I a scientist or entomologist (bug specialist). BUT, I can read, AND I have done my research on the how and why of mosquitoes. Heres what the scientists and experts have found out so far.

Only female mosquitoes bite. (why)? They need a blood meal to develop and lay their eggs. How do they find the blood they need? As with all of natures creatures mosquitoes have evolved to survive by highly developing only the exact senses they need to live long enough to reproduce. So do they see better than other creatures? NO! It has been proven that a mosquito can not only find you in complete and total darkness, but will go strait for you!

Heres how they do it. Scientist have known for some time that mosquitoes sense carbon dioxide in the air. Not only do they sense it they home in on certain chemicals carried in that carbon dioxide. Its called a carbon dioxide signature.

Plants, animals, water, and almost everything has its own carbon dioxide signature. It is now known that different plants can be identified by this signature. By the same rules even humans all have a different carbon dioxide signature. Its even being called a carbon dioxide fingerprint and is being used in crime labs to identify people!

Ever wonder why the mosquitoes bite you and not the guy next to you? They are attracted to certain chemicals in the carbon dioxide being released from your body and the guy next to you doesn't have as much of these chemicals in his carbon dioxide as you do. However, there are thousands of chemicals already identified in human carbon dioxide release! What are these certain chemicals that attract mosquitoes? Have they been identified? Yes! but the scientists who discovered them aren't telling us exactly what they are! Thats right they are keeping these facts a secret! All they will say is that three key chemical signatures found in the release of human carbon dioxide will attract mosquitoes at a rate of 100%.

Other scientist have proven that these chemicals are Lactic Acid related and another attractant is fatty acids being released in the human carbon dioxide signature.

There is no such thing as a mosquito repellent!

So, now we know more about what attracts mosquitoes. What do we know about what repels them? Get this, the truth is "mosquitoes aren't repelled by anything!" They simply cannot sense anything that sends them running, is irritating, disgusting or repulsive! Therefore there is no such thing as a mosquito repellent! They are either attracted or they aren't!

So if it isn't the disgusting stench of DEET that keeps them off of you what is it? The truth is out there, all one has to do is look for it! Heres what I found. DEET inhibits the lactic acid receptor cells, (it masks the lactic acids, changes it) confuses the mosquito and prevents the blood feeding response. In other words, the mosquito will not bite when you wear DEET because it cannot smell lactic acid and cannot identify you as a meal. Most insect repellents work in the same way, no matter what the source, they confuse the olfactory receptors and the mosquito simply cannot smell you.

How does it do this? DEET contains plant chemicals that when placed on the skin evaporate and are released with your carbon dioxide. This changes your carbon dioxide signature to that of a plant! The mosquito sees a plant, not what she is looking for so she looks elsewhere. BUT, DEET also contains allot of other unnecessary poisons intended to KILL the mosquitoes. It has been proven these same chemicals will KILL YOU!

DEET is available in many insect repellents

Lets stop right here and look at this a minute. How many mosquitoes do we have to kill so that we never get bit by one that is carrying some awful disease? Dont get me wrong, I hate the bloody little buggers as much as the next guy, but is it even possible to kill that many? And if we managed to kill too many mosquitoes, what then? What happens to the creatures who survive by eating mosquitoes? They starve to extinction! Then the creatures who survive by eating the creatures who eat mosquitoes die also. This is the way nature works and some of these same creatures pollinate our plants! How long before we realize we are killing ourselves? Trying to kill mosquitoes is not only futile but is doing irreparable damage to our entire ecology. Already people are asking "what happened to all the Purple Martins that used to be around?" How much of natures beauty have we already destroyed with this vendetta?

ALL you need to keep the mosquitoes from biting you is a disguise, something that makes you undetectable, an anti-mosquito cloak that conceals or hides you, so mosquitoes don't recognize you as a meal. This would give you a protective shield. Some plants oils contain chemicals which when applied to the skin evaporate and are carried into the air with your carbon dioxide thereby changing your signature. Nepetalactone, found in Catnip oil is one of the most recently discovered plant chemicals which is proving to be very effective in masking the human signature. It is not an irritant as reported.

Copyright © 1999 - 2006. All Rights Reserved by Alternative Nature

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Cold-Weather Dangers

Let's face it, the weather strongly influences how we plan our day and often what we wear! If it is raining, we carry an umbrella and some outdoor activities may be cancelled. If it's cold and snowing, we dress in extra layers to keep warm and dry. Temperature alone may not provide enough information, though, to help us make good decisions about what to wear or whether to cancel outdoor activities. If there is a strong wind blowing on a cold winter's day, we will feel colder than if there is no wind at all. Based on temperature and wind speed, wind chill is a good indicator of how cold we feel outside and allows us to make better decisions to help avoid cold-weather dangers.

Prevention is always the key! To protect yourself from any cold-weather danger, always dress appropriately. If your local meteorologist says to expect an extremely low Wind Chill Index, don't go outside in shorts! Be careful to remove wet clothing quickly and exchange it for dry garments. Protect your extremities! Fingers, noses, toes, and ears are usually the most susceptible areas to cold-weather injuries. Wear gloves, warm socks that will not cause excessive sweating, and a hat or earmuffs.

Mr. Green

So what are these cold-weather dangers? One of them is hypothermia. This is a condition where the core body temperature decreases to a level at which normal muscle and brain functions are impaired. Any prolonged exposure to temperatures less than 98.6 degrees (37 degrees C) can be linked to hypothermia! Here are some of the conditions that can lead to hypothermia:

The severity of hypothermia can vary, depending on how low the core body temperature gets. There are specific signs and symptoms to look for. The condition worsens as the core body temperature lowers.

Mild Hypothermia (core body temperature ranges from 99-95 degrees Fahrenheit):
* Involuntary shivering
* Inability to perform complex motor functions (such as skiing)

Moderate Hypothermia (core body temperature ranges from 95-90 degrees Fahrenheit):
* Slurred speech
* Violent shivering
* Dazed consciousness
* Irrational behavior (for example, the person may begin undressing and is unaware of being cold)
* Loss of fine motor coordination

Severe Hypothermia (core body temperature ranges from 90-75 degrees Fahrenheit):
* Pupils are dilated
* Skin is pale
* Pulse rate decreases
* Muscle rigidity develops
* Shivering occurs in waves, it is violent and then pauses; the pauses eventually grow longer and longer until shivering ceases
* Person falls to the ground and cannot walk; may curl into a fetal position to conserve heat
* Person loses consciousness, heartbeat and respiration are erratic
* Cardiac and respiratory failure, then death

It is important to be able to recognize the symptoms of hypothermia before it is too late. To determine whether someone is suffering from hypothermia, ask the person questions that require higher reasoning skills. For example, someone who is hypothermic will probably be unable to count backward by sixes from 100. Shivering that can be stopped voluntarily is probably an indication of mild hypothermia. If you suspect severe hypothermia and the person is curled into the fetal position, pull back on one arm. If the arm curls back up, the person is still alive, but in need of immediate medical treatment.

GLOSSARY:
Wind Chill Index - Wind chill is based on the rate of heat loss from exposed skin caused by the combined effects of wind and cold. As the wind speed increases, heat is carried away from the body at an accelerated rate, driving down the body temperature. The wind chill temperature, an "apparent" temperature, gives us a better estimate of how cold it really feels outside. The measure of the rate of heat loss based on air temperatures and wind speeds is not a temperature, but it allows us to understand how quickly heat is lost to the wind.

Hypothermia - This is a condition where the core body temperature decreases to a level at which normal muscle and brain functions are impaired. There are many factors that can influence susceptibility to hypothermia, including prolonged exposure to cold temperatures. Hypothermia may cause drowsiness, unconsciousness, and lower heart and breathing rates. Severe hypothermia, left untreated, may cause death.

Core Body Temperature - This is the temperature of the core of the body, including the heart, lungs, and brain, that is essential to the overall metabolic rate of the body. The optimum core body temperature is 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit (37 degrees Celsius).

Next: Treating Hypothemia

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Treating Hypothermia

Now that you've learned a little about the symptoms of hypothermia, you need to know how to treat it. The most important things to remember are to reduce heat loss, add fuel and fluids, and add heat.

To Treat Mild to Moderate Hypothermia:

Onset of hypothemia

To Treat Severe Hypothermia:

It is important not to rewarm the peripheral areas of any hypothermic victim! The core area of the body should be rewarmed to prevent a situation called afterdrop. Afterdrop can occur when very cold blood from a peripheral area, such as the legs or arms, returns to the core of the body and lowers the core temperature even further! This blood may be acetic, as well, and letting it return to the core of the body can cause cardiac arrhythmias and death.

Although a hypothermic victim may exhibit all the signs of being clinically dead, such as blue skin, fixed and dilated pupils, rigid muscles, and no noticeable breathing, he or she may still be alive! The victim may be in a state of "metabolic icebox," which occurs when the body temperature drops to 86 degrees Fahrenheit or lower. If this is the case, it is necessary to rewarm the victim and possibly perform CPR. DO NOT perform CPR if a heartbeat is detectable, even at a rate of 2-3 beats per minute. The heart is beating slowly, but it is still distributing blood. The heart is hyperexcitable during severe hypothermia and stimulation through CPR, or simply moving a victim, can cause fibrillation leading to death.

GLOSSARY:

Hypothermia - This is a condition where the core body temperature decreases to a level at which normal muscle and brain functions are impaired. There are many factors that can influence susceptibility to hypothermia, including prolonged exposure to cold temperatures. Hypothermia may cause drowsiness, unconsciousness, and lower heart and breathing rates. Severe hypothermia, left untreated, may cause death.

Normothermic - This refers to the normal state of the core body temperature.

Cold diuresis - A condition where the surface blood vessels constrict in response to cold. This constriction causes greater volume pressure in the bloodstream which is detected by the kidneys. The kidneys will "pull off" the excess fluid to reduce the pressure. The kidneys then excrete the fluid, causing the bladder to fill. This is one way in which the body protects the amount of heat lost at the surface.

Afterdrop - A condition where cold blood from the peripheral areas of the body, such as the arms and legs, is returned to the core, causing a drop in the core temperature. The cold blood returning to the heart may also cause a frenzied and irregular heart rhythm disturbance (ventricular fibrillation). This condition can be avoided by not rewarming peripheral areas of the body before the core has been warmed.

Acetic - This refers to the acid waste products from cell metabolism in the peripheral areas of the body. If the peripheral areas of the body are rewarmed, this acetic blood may return to the heart and may cause cardiac arrest.

Arrhythmias - Abnormalities of the heartbeat and the absence of cardiac rhythm. Any disturbance in the normal cardiac rhythm or any markedly irregular rhythm, block, or the presence of premature contraction. This includes functional abnormalities such as tachycardia, bradycardia, premature ventricular beats, ventricular fibrillation, atrial fibrillation, flutter, and heart block.

Fibrillation - A type of cardiac arrhythmia characterized by rapid, unsynchronized quivering of atria or ventricles. Atrial fibrillation may be asymptomatic, but ventricular fibrillation is typically fatal if not corrected within minutes. A disorder of heart rate and rhythm in which the upper heart chambers (atria) are stimulated to contract in a very rapid and/or disorganized manner; this usually also affects contraction of the ventricles.

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Page 3 index

DESERT SURVIVAL:
- Terrain
- Environmental Factors
- Need for Water
- Heat Casualties
- Precautions
- Desert Hazzards

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After watching Japanese Story on tv last night where 2 persons were stuck in the hot Australian desert, I decided to take a look at desert survival.

DESERT SURVIVAL

To survive and evade in arid or desert areas, you must understand and prepare for the environment you will face. You must determine your equipment needs, the tactics you will use, and how the environment will affect you and your tactics. Your survival will depend upon your knowledge of the terrain, basic climatic elements, your ability to cope with these elements, and your will to survive.

TERRAIN

Most arid areas have several types of terrain. The five basic desert terrain types are--

* Mountainous (High Altitude).
* Rocky plateau.
* Sand dunes.
* Salt marshes.
* Broken, dissected terrain ("gebel" or "wadi" ).

Desert terrain makes movement difficult and demanding. Land navigation will be extremely difficult as there may be very few landmarks. Cover and concealment may be very limited; therefore, the threat of exposure to the enemy remains constant.

Mountain Deserts
Scattered ranges or areas of barren hills or mountains separated by dry, flat basins characterize mountain deserts. High ground may rise gradually or abruptly from flat areas to several thousand meters above sea level. Most of the infrequent rainfall occurs on high ground and runs off rapidly in the form of flash floods. These floodwaters erode deep gullies and ravines and deposit sand and gravel around the edges of the basins. Water rapidly evaporates, leaving the land as barren as before, although there may be short-lived vegetation. If enough water enters the basin to compensate for the rate of evaporation, shallow lakes may develop, such as the Great Salt Lake in Utah, or the Dead Sea. Most of these lakes have a high salt content.

Rocky Plateau Deserts
Rocky plateau deserts have relatively slight relief interspersed with extensive flat areas with quantities of solid or broken rock at or near the surface. There may be steep-walled, eroded valleys, known as wadis in the Middle East and arroyos or canyons in the United States and Mexico. Although their flat bottoms may be superficially attractive as assembly areas, the narrower valleys can be extremely dangerous to men and material due to flash flooding after rains. The Golan Heights is an example of a rocky plateau desert.

Sandy or Dune Deserts
Sandy or dune deserts are extensive flat areas covered with sand or gravel. "Flat" is a relative term, as some areas may contain sand dunes that are over 300 meters high and 16 to 24 kilometers long. Trafficability in such terrain will depend on the windward or leeward slope of the dunes and the texture of the sand. Other areas, however, may be flat for 3,000 meters and more. Plant life may vary from none to scrub over 2 meters high. Examples of this type of desert include the edges of the Sahara, the empty quarter of the Arabian Desert, areas of California and New Mexico, and the Kalahari in South Africa.

Salt Marshes
Salt marshes are flat, desolate areas, sometimes studded with clumps of grass but devoid of other vegetation. They occur in arid areas where rainwater has collected, evaporated, and left large deposits of alkali salts and water with a high salt concentration. The water is so salty it is undrinkable. A crust that may be 2.5 to 30 centimeters thick forms over the saltwater.

In arid areas there are salt marshes hundreds of kilometers square. These areas usually support many insects, most of which bite. Avoid salt marshes. This type of terrain is highly corrosive to boots, clothing, and skin. A good example is the Shat-el-Arab waterway along the Iran-Iraq border.

Broken Terrain
All arid areas contain broken or highly dissected terrain. Rainstorms that erode soft sand and carve out canyons form this terrain. A wadi may range from 3 meters wide and 2 meters deep to several hundred meters wide and deep. The direction it takes varies as much as its width and depth. It twists and turns and forms a mazelike pattern. A wadi will give you good cover and concealment, but do not try to move through it because it is very difficult terrain to negotiate.

Based on 'U.S. Army Survival Manual', a public domain work published by the U.S. Department of Defense that is available for sale at Amazon.com.

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ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

Surviving and evading the enemy in an arid area depends on what you know and how prepared you are for the environmental conditions you will face. Determine what equipment you will need, the tactics you will use, and the environment's impact on them and you.

In a desert area there are seven environmental factors that you must consider--

Low Rainfall
Low rainfall is the most obvious environmental factor in an arid area. Some desert areas receive less than 10 centimeters of rain annually, and this rain comes in brief torrents that quickly run off the ground surface. You cannot survive long without water in high desert temperatures. In a desert survival situation, you must first consider "How much water do I have?" and "Where are other water sources?"

Intense Sunlight and Heat
Intense sunlight and heat are present in all arid areas. Air temperature can rise as high as 60 degrees C (140 degrees F) during the day. Heat gain results from direct sunlight, hot blowing winds, reflective heat (the sun's rays bouncing off the sand), and conductive heat from direct contact with the desert sand and rock (Figure 13-1).

The temperature of desert sand and rock averages 16 to 22 degrees C (30 to 40 degrees F) more than that of the air. For instance, when the air temperature is 43 degrees C (110 degrees F), the sand temperature may be 60 degrees C (140 degrees F).

Intense sunlight and heat increase the body's need for water. To conserve your body fluids and energy, you will need a shelter to reduce your exposure to the heat of the day. Travel at night to lessen your use of water.

Radios and sensitive items of equipment exposed to direct intense sunlight will malfunction.

Wide Temperature Range
Temperatures in arid areas may get as high as 55 degrees C during the day and as low as 10 degrees C during the night. The drop in temperature at night occurs rapidly and will chill a person who lacks warm clothing and is unable to move about. The cool evenings and nights are the best times to work or travel. If your plan is to rest at night, you will find a wool sweater, long underwear, and a wool stocking cap extremely helpful.

Sparse Vegetation
Vegetation is sparse in arid areas. You will therefore have trouble finding shelter and camouflaging your movements. During daylight hours large areas of terrain are visible and easily controlled by a small opposing force.

If traveling in hostile territory, follow the principles of desert camouflage--

Before moving, survey the area for sites that provide cover and concealment. You will have trouble estimating distance. The emptiness of desert terrain causes most people to underestimate distance by a factor of three: What appears to be 1 kilometer away is really 3 kilometers away.

High Mineral Content
All arid regions have areas where the surface soil has a high mineral content (borax, salt, alkali, and lime). Material in contact with this soil wears out quickly, and water in these areas is extremely hard and undrinkable. Wetting your uniform in such water to cool off may cause a skin rash. The Great Salt Lake area in Utah is an example of this type of mineral-laden water and soil. There is little or no plant life; there-fore, shelter is hard to find. Avoid these areas if possible.

Sandstorms
Sandstorms (sand-laden winds) occur frequently in most deserts. The "Seistan" desert wind in Iran and Afghanistan blows constantly for up to 120 days. Within Saudi Arabia, winds average 3.2 to 4.8 kilometers per hour (kph) and can reach 112 to 128 kph in early afternoon. Expect major sandstorms and dust storms at least once a week.

The greatest danger is getting lost in a swirling wall of sand. Wear goggles and cover your mouth and nose with cloth. If natural shelter is unavailable, mark your direction of travel, lie down, and sit out the storm.

Dust and wind-blown sand interfere with radio transmissions. Therefore, be ready to use other means for signaling, such as pyrotechnics, signal mirrors, or marker panels, if available.

Mirages
Mirages are optical phenomena caused by the refraction of light through heated air rising from a sandy or stony surface. They occur in the interior of the desert about 10 kilometers from the coast. They make objects that are 1.5 kilometers or more away appear to move.

This mirage effect makes it difficult for you to identify an object from a distance. It also blurs distant range contours so much that you feel surrounded by a sheet of water from which elevations stand out as "islands."

The mirage effect makes it hard for a person to identify targets, estimate range, and see objects clearly. However, if you can get to high ground (3 meters or more above the desert floor), you can get above the superheated air close to the ground and overcome the mirage effect. Mirages make land navigation difficult because they obscure natural features. You can survey the area at dawn, dusk, or by moonlight when there is little likelihood of mirage.

Light levels in desert areas are more intense than in other geographic areas. Moonlit nights are usually crystal clear, winds die down, haze and glare disappear, and visibility is excellent. You can see lights, red flash-lights, and blackout lights at great distances. Sound carries very far.

Conversely, during nights with little moonlight, visibility is extremely poor. Traveling is extremely hazardous. You must avoid getting lost, falling into ravines, or stumbling into enemy positions. Movement during such a night is practical only if you have a compass and have spent the day in a shelter, resting, observing and memorizing the terrain, and selecting your route.

Based on 'U.S. Army Survival Manual', a public domain work published by the U.S. Department of Defense that is available for sale at Amazon.com.

Wanda SG

NEED FOR WATER

The subject of man and water in the desert has generated considerable interest and confusion since the early days of World War II when the U. S. Army was preparing to fight in North Africa. At one time the U. S. Army thought it could condition men to do with less water by progressively reducing their water supplies during training. They called it water discipline. It caused hundreds of heat casualties.

A key factor in desert survival is understanding the relationship between physical activity, air temperature, and water consumption. The body requires a certain amount of water for a certain level of activity at a certain temperature. For example, a person performing hard work in the sun at 43 degrees C requires 19 liters of water daily. Lack of the required amount of water causes a rapid decline in an individual's ability to make decisions and to perform tasks efficiently.

Your body's normal temperature is 36.9 degrees C (98.6 degrees F). Your body gets rid of excess heat (cools off) by sweating. The warmer your body becomes--whether caused by work, exercise, or air temperature--the more you sweat. The more you sweat, the more moisture you lose. Sweating is the principal cause of water loss. If a person stops sweating during periods of high air temperature and heavy work or exercise, he will quickly develop heat stroke. This is an emergency that requires immediate medical attention.

Figure 13-2 shows daily water requirements for various levels of work. Understanding how the air temperature and your physical activity affect your water requirements allows you to take measures to get the most from your water supply. These measures are--

Thirst is not a reliable guide for your need for water. A person who uses thirst as a guide will drink only two-thirds of his daily water requirement. To prevent this "voluntary" dehydration, use the following guide:

Drinking water at regular intervals helps your body remain cool and decreases sweating. Even when your water supply is low, sipping water constantly will keep your body cooler and reduce water loss through sweating. Conserve your fluids by reducing activity during the heat of day. Do not ration your water! If you try to ration water, you stand a good chance of becoming a heat casualty.

Based on 'U.S. Army Survival Manual', a public domain work published by the U.S. Department of Defense that is available for sale at Amazon.com.

Wanda SG

HEAT CASUALTIES

Your chances of becoming a heat casualty as a survivor are great, due to injury, stress, and lack of critical items of equipment. Following are the major types of heat casualties and their treatment when little water and no medical help are available.

Heat Cramps
The loss of salt due to excessive sweating causes heat cramps. Symptoms are moderate to severe muscle cramps in legs, arms, or abdomen. These symptoms may start as a mild muscular discomfort. You should now stop all activity, get in the shade, and drink water. If you fail to recognize the early symptoms and continue your physical activity, you will have severe muscle cramps and pain. Treat as for heat exhaustion, below.

Heat Exhaustion
A large loss of body water and salt causes heat exhaustion. Symptoms are headache, mental confusion, irritability, excessive sweating, weakness, dizziness, cramps, and pale, moist, cold (clammy) skin. Immediately get the patient under shade. Make him lie on a stretcher or similar item about 45 centimeters off the ground. Loosen his clothing. Sprinkle him with water and fan him. Have him drink small amounts of water every 3 minutes. Ensure he stays quiet and rests.

Heat Stroke
A severe heat injury caused by extreme loss of water and salt and the body's inability to cool itself. The patient may die if not cooled immediately. Symptoms are the lack of sweat, hot and dry skin, headache, dizziness, fast pulse, nausea and vomiting, and mental confusion leading to unconsciousness. Immediately get the person to shade. Lay him on a stretcher or similar item about 45 centimeters off the ground. Loosen his clothing. Pour water on him (it does not matter if the water is polluted or brackish) and fan him. Massage his arms, legs, and body. If he regains consciousness, let him drink small amounts of water every 3 minutes.

PRECAUTIONS

In a desert survival and evasion situation, it is unlikely that you will have a medic or medical supplies with you to treat heat injuries. Therefore, take extra care to avoid heat injuries. Rest during the day. Work during the cool evenings and nights. Use a buddy system to watch for heat injury, and observe the following guidelines:

DESERT HAZARDS

There are several hazards unique to desert survival. These include insects, snakes, thorned plants and cacti, contaminated water, sunburn, eye irritation, and climatic stress.

Insects of almost every type abound in the desert. Man, as a source of water and food, attracts lice, mites, wasps, and flies. They are extremely unpleasant and may carry diseases. Old buildings, ruins, and caves are favorite habitats of spiders, scorpions, centipedes, lice, and mites. These areas provide protection from the elements and also attract other wild-life. Therefore, take extra care when staying in these areas. Wear gloves at all times in the desert. Do not place your hands anywhere without first looking to see what is there. Visually inspect an area before sitting or lying down. When you get up, shake out and inspect your boots and clothing. All desert areas have snakes. They inhabit ruins, native villages, garbage dumps, caves, and natural rock outcropping that offer shade. Never go barefoot or walk through these areas without carefully inspecting them for snakes. Pay attention to where you place your feet and hands. Most snakebites result from stepping on or handling snakes. Avoid them. Once you see a snake, give it a wide berth.

Based on 'U.S. Army Survival Manual', a public domain work published by the U.S. Department of Defense that is available for sale at Amazon.com.

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