~ Mother Earth ~

last SG · 2005-03-28T01:23:34+00:00

Celtic Sea The Celtic Sea (Irish: An Mhuir Cheilteach) is the area of the Atlantic Ocean off the south coast of Ireland. It is bounded to the east by Saint...

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Robben Island

Robben Island (Dutch for "seal island") is an island 12 km off the coast of Cape Town, South Africa located in Table Bay.

Cape Town, False Bay (top) and Table Bay with Robben Island (right) from space, February 1995.

It was first inhabited thousands of years ago when the channel dividing it from the mainland was not under water. Since the end of the 17th century, Robben Island has been used to isolate certain people, mainly as a prison. Among the prison's first permanent inhabitants were political leaders from various Dutch colonies, not only in South Africa, but also from Indonesia. From 1836 to 1931 the island was used as a leper colony, and in the 20th century it became famous as a prison for political prisoners. Notable amongst these were Nelson Mandela, Walter Sisulu, Govan Mbeki and Robert Sobukwe.

Prison Buildings on Robben Island

All the land on the island is owned by the state, with the exception of the island church.

Today the island is a popular tourist destination and has been declared a World Heritage Site in 1999. It can be reached by ferry from the Victoria & Alfred Waterfront and is open throughout the year, weather permitting.

Issue #110

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Outback

The outback (also called the Never-Never, back of beyond, or back o'Burke) is the remote and usually semi-arid interior of Australia. The marginally fertile parts are used for sheep or cattle farmingapart from this, tourism and scattered mining are the main economic activities in this vast and sparsely settled area. Due to the size of the outback, the total value of mining and farming is considerable.

A typical outback scene, somewhere north of Coober Pedy.

Population

Over 90% of the Australian population lives in urban settlements on the coastal fringes. Despite this, the outback and the history of its exploration and settlement provides Australians with a mythical backdrop, and stories of swagmen, squatters, outlaws such as Ned Kelly (though Ned Kelly spent virtually all his time in the relatively temperate Great Dividing Range) and so on are central to the national ethos of the country. The song Waltzing Matilda, which is about swagmen and squatters, is the popular traditional Australian song.

The outback is now the only place where Australian Aborigines still live in a more or less traditional way.

Tourism

"The Never-Never" is a term referring to remoter parts of the Australian outback. The outback is also called "back of beyond" or "back o' Burke". There are many popular tourist attractions in the outback. These include:

- Alice Springs
- Ayers Rock (Uluru)
- Coober Pedy
- Devils Marbles
- Katherine River Gorge
- Kings Canyon (Watarrka)
- The Olgas (Kata Tjuta)
- The MacDonald Range
- Stockman's Hall of Fame

Issue #111

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Madison Square Garden

Madison Square Garden, often abbreviated as MSG and sometimes simply called "The Garden" has been the name of four arenas in New York City, United States. The first two were located at Madison Square, thus the name. Subsequently a new 20,000-seat Garden was built at 50th Street and 8th Avenue, and the current Garden is sited on top of Pennsylvania Station at 33rd Street and 7th Avenue. The present arena is informally known to some as "The World's Most Famous Arena".

Madison Square Garden

Present operations

The present Garden is best known as the home of the New York Knicks (basketball) and New York Rangers (ice hockey), professional sports teams that play their home matches in the arena. It also hosts the Ringling Brothers and Barnum and Bailey Circus when it comes to New York City, home games for the St. John's Red Storm (college basketball), and almost any other kind of indoor activity that draws large audiences, such as the 2004 Republican National Convention.

MSG is also known for its place in the history of boxing. Many of boxing's most important fights were held at the Madison Square Garden, including many of Joe Louis, the Roberto Duran-Ken Buchanan affair, and the first Joe Frazier-Muhammad Ali bout. Before promoters such as Don King and Bob Arum moved boxing to Las Vegas, Madison Square Garden was considered the Mecca of boxing.

Seating

Seating in the present Madison Square Garden is arranged in five ascending levels. The lowest one is referred to as "rink-side" for hockey games or "court-side" for basketball games (at some events a still lower seating level, known as the Rotunda, is also provided); next above this is the First Promenade, followed by the Second Promenade, First Balcony and Second Balcony. The seats of these five levels originally bore the colors red, orange, yellow, green and blue respectively; however, this color scheme has since been abolished, mainly because the "blue seats" had become synonymous with rowdy behavior by fans, particularly those attending New York Rangers hockey games.

History

The site of the first Madison Square Garden was formerly the Union Depot of the New York and Harlem Railroad. When the depot was moved to the current site of Grand Central Terminal in 1871 the depot was sold to P.T. Barnum and converted into hippodrome called "Barnum's Monster Classical and Geological Hippodrome". In 1876 it was renamed to Gilmore's Garden.

William Henry Vanderbilt officially renamed Gilmore's Garden to Madison Square Garden and reopened the facility to the public on May 30, 1879 at 26th Street and Madison Avenue. The first arena was originally built for the sport of track cycling, which is still remembered in the name of the Madison event.

The second Madison Square Garden, designed by Stanford White, who would later be killed there, opened at this site in 1890 and remained until the third Garden opened in 1925. On February 11, 1968 Madison Square Garden III closed and Madison Square Garden IV opened.

Notable events at Madison Square Garden

Notable firsts

-- February 12, 1879 - The first artificial ice rink in North America opens at the Garden.
-- 1902 - The first indoor professional American football game is played.
-- 1934 - The first college basketball game at the Garden is played, between the University of Notre Dame and New York University.
-- February 28, 1940 - Basketball is televised for the first time (Fordham University vs. the University of Pittsburgh).
-- March 19, 1954 - Joey Giardello knocks out Willie Tory in round seven at the Garden in the first televised prize boxing fight shown in color.
-- March 31, 1985 - The WWF, now known as the WWE, presents the first WrestleMania Pay Per View event, marketed as the Greatest spectacle in professional wrestling, revolutionizing the Sports Entertainment industry.
-- June 14, 1994 - After 54 years the New York Rangers win the Stanley Cup at Madison Square Garden.
-- June 29, 1997 - The New York Liberty professional women's basketball team plays their first home game - the first professional women's basketball game to be played at the Garden in many years.
-- March 1, 2003 - Quinnipiac University defeats the University of Connecticut 4-3 in the first college hockey game played at Madison Square Garden since 1977.

Other notable events

-- June 25, 1906 - Architect Stanford White is assassinated by Harry K. Thaw on the rooftop, allegedly because he seduced the murderer's wife, Evelyn Nesbit.
-- October 20, 2001 - The Concert for New York City is held at the Garden to benefit the city and the victims of the 9/11 terrorist disaster.
-- March 14, 2004 - Wrestlemania XX, by the WWE, was held there. The 20th anniversary of WWE's Wrestlemania Series.

Issue #112

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Estuary

An estuary is a semi-enclosed coastal body of water which has a free connection with the open sea and within which sea water mixes with fresh water. The key feature of an estuary is that it is a mixing place for sea water and a significantly-sized river to supply fresh water. A tide is a necessary component to maintain a dynamic relationship between the two waters. Though something in the nature of an estuary can exist in a non-tidal sea, such areas go by names such as lagoon, étang or laguna. In non-tidal seas, the rivers naturally form deltas rather than estuaries.

Estuaries and coastal waters are among the most productive ecosystems on Earth, providing numerous ecological, economic, cultural, and aesthetic benefits and services.

An estuary is typically the tidal mouth of a river, and estuaries are often characterised by sedimentation of silt which usually comes mainly from the sea though in some cases, that from the river predominates. The sand and mud banks and marshes are relied upon as habitat, by for example, wading birds. Estuaries are more likely to occur on submerged coasts, where the sea level has risen in relation to the land, as this process floods valleys to form rias, fjords etc, which can be classified as estuaries in cases where there is a significant river flowing into them.

The estuaries are sometimes confused with fjords. The Lim bay in Istria, Croatia, is often called "Lim fjord" although it's not actually caused by glaciation but by land erosion by the river Pazincica.

Issue #113

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Cirrocumulus

A Cirrocumulus is a high-altitude cirriform cloud, occurring at 20,000-40,000 ft or 6000-12,000 m.

Cirrocumulus clouds

Formation

Cirrocumulus is formed from cirrus or cirrostratus clouds when they are warmed gently from below. The heating process causes air to rise and sink inside the cloud. This is why cirrocumulus is almost always associated with cirrus and cirrostratus. If this is not the case, the cloud is then an altocumulus.

Appearance

Cirrocumulus is responsible for the nice "mackerel sky" feature.

Cirrocumulus and altocumulus sometimes look alike; however, unlike altocumulus, cirrocumulus is higher, therefore cirrocumulus cloudlets appear to be much smaller and the cloud provides no shadowing.

Cirrocumulus can show beautiful coronas and iridescence, especially if appearing under the cirriform lacunosus (net-like) structure.

Structural characteristics

The cloud is made of of thin, white patches (cloudlets), each of which composed of very small granules or ripples. Like all high-level clouds, cirrocumulus consists of ice crystals. These crystals can be vaporized, and gaps between cloudlets appear. The cloud usually presents 2 systems of undulation and fibrous margins.

Varieties of cirrocumulus

Castellanus is the formation that have tower-like protuberances in their superior parts, giving the cloud a crenellated appearance. The towers are from the same basis and arranged in line.

Flocus cloud has the appearance of a cumuliform cluster whose basis is more or less jagged.

Stratiformis formations are extensive horizontally, forming a vast horizontal layer.

Lenticularis formations are lens-like or almond-like, often allongated, with a well-defined circumference showed by an irisation.

Issue #114

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Fox Glacier

The Fox Glacier or Te Moeka o Tuawe is a glacier located in Westland National Park on the West Coast of New Zealand's South Island. It was named in 1872 after a visit by the then Prime Minister of New Zealand, Sir William Fox. Although retreating throughout most of the last 100 years, it has been advancing since 1985 at an average of about 40 cm a day.

Ice cave in the terminal face of Fox Glacier in Westland National Park on the West Coast of New Zealand's South Island.

Fed by four alpine glaciers, Fox Glacier falls 2,600 m on its 13 km journey from the Southern Alps down to the coast. Like the nearby Franz Josef Glacier, it is one of the most accessible glaciers in the world, with its terminal face an easy 5 km walk from Fox Glacier village/Weheka. The outflow of the glacier forms the Fox River.

Fox Glacier village/Weheka functions mainly as a service centre for tourists. It also services the local farming community.

Issue #115

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Northridge earthquake

The 1994 Northridge earthquake occurred on January 17, 1994 at 4:30:55 AM Pacific Standard Time in the city of Los Angeles, California. This earthquake was considered moderate, with a moment magnitude of 6.7, but was the most monetarily costly quake in United States history. The Guinness Book of World Records rates the earthquake at a 7.5.

Aftermath of the 1994 Northridge earthquake. The underpass of the 10 Freeway at La Cienega Blvd. It shows the collapsed section of the freeway.

The epicenter was in the San Fernando Valley, originally believed to be in the community of Northridge (later shown to actually have occurred within the neighboring community of Reseda), about 32 km (20 mi) northwest of downtown Los Angeles. The National Geophysical Data Center places the epicenter's geographical coordinates at 34.213 N and 118.537 W, which is at the end of Elkwood St., just east of Baird Av.

Damage occurred up to 77 km (52 mi) away, with the most damage in the west San Fernando Valley and the city of Santa Monica. Fifty-seven people were killed, and over 1,500 were seriously injured. Major freeway damage occurred up to 32 km (20 mi) from the epicenter. Portions of Interstate 10 (the Santa Monica Freeway) and California State Highway 14 (the Antelope Valley Freeway) collapsed and had to be rebuilt.

The support columns were crushed into giant metal cage-like states.

This quake was unusual because the epicenter was within a major metropolitan area. Although several commercial buildings collapsed, loss of life was minimized because of the early morning hour of the quake, and it occurred on the birthdate (observed) of Martin Luther King, Jr., a federal holiday. Also, because of known seismic activity in California, area building codes dictate that buildings incorporate structural design intended to reduce the risk of structural collapse due to earthquakes. As it turned out, one of the few multi-family buildings to collapse had not been built to code.

Through investigation of damaged buildings, it was discovered that structural steel did not perform as well as expected. Because nobody anticipated that steel would fail at the rate that it did, buildings that were not expected to have major damage were red-tagged many months after the quake, when the inspectors finally got to them. This new information on the nature of earthquake damage resulted in even more stringent building codes.

The freeway bent even before the collapsed section.

The quake produced unusually strong thrust, with accelerations in the range of 1.0 g over a large area. While most of the damage was caused by shaking, some damage was also caused by fire and by ground deformation. In some areas the ground surface was permanently uplifted by up to 50 cm (20 in).

This was the third very destructive earthquake to occur in California in 23 years. The first was the Mw 6.6 San Fernando (Sylmar) Earthquake, affecting the same area in 1971; the second was the Mw 6.9 (Richter magnitude 7.1), 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake south of San Francisco. The 1994 event is the most damaging earthquake to strike the United States since the San Francisco earthquake of 1906. In terms of financial loss, the earthquake is also one of the worst natural disasters in U.S. history, comparable to Hurricane Andrew in 1992.

Several key hospitals suffered severe structural damage and were rendered unusable after the earthquake. Not only were they unable to serve their local neighborhoods, they had to transfer out their inpatient populations, which further increased the burden on nearby hospitals that were still operational. As a result, the state legislature passed a law requiring all California hospitals to ensure that their acute care units and emergency rooms are in earthquake-proof structures by January 1, 2005.

Issue #116

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Aleutian Range

The Aleutian Range is the mountain range of the Alaska Peninsula in southeast Alaska. It is especially notable for its large number of active volcanoes. The mainland part of the range is about 1,000 km (600 mi) long; the Aleutian Islands are (geologically) a partially submerged western extension of the range that stretches for another 1,600 km (1,000 mi).

Map showing volcanoes along the Aleutian Range on the Alaska Peninsula

The range is almost entirely roadless wilderness, and Katmai National Park and Preserve must be reached by boat or plane.

Mountains

- Mount Redoubt (3,109 m)
- Iliamna Volcano (3,054 m)
- Mount Shishaldin (2,857 m)
- Mount Pavlof (2,715 m)
- Mount Veniaminof (2,508 m)
- Isanotski Peaks (2,446 m)
- Mount Denison (2,318 m)
- Mount Douglas (2,153 m)
- Mount Chiginagak (2,134 m)
- Double Peak (2,078 m)
- Mount Katmai (2,047 m)
- Makushin Volcano (2,036 m)
- Pogromni (2,002 m)

Issue #117

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Dew

Dew is the term for small droplets of water that appear on thin objects in the morning or evening. This is a form of condensation. Dew results from atmospheric moisture that condenses after a warm day and appears during the night on cooled surfaces as small drops. The cool surfaces cool the nearby air, decreasing the amount of humidity (dissolved moisture) the local air can hold. The extra vapor condenses (precipitates out of solution in the air). When temperatures are low enough, dew will take the form of ice; this form is called frost.

Dew on leaves of grass

As dew is related to the temperature of surface, in late summer it is formed most easily on surfaces which are not warmed by conducted heat from deep ground, such as railings, car roofs and bridges.

Dew on a spider web

Culturally, dew is often associated with purity and freshness. This is evidenced by the names of certain popular beverages such as Mountain Dew and Sierra Mist.

Issue #118

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Park Guell

Parc Güell (Park Guell) is a garden complex with architectural elements situated on the hill of El Carmel in the Gràcia district of Barcelona, Spain. It was designed by the Catalan architect Antoni Gaudí and built in the years 1900 to 1914. It is one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

The entrance to the Park Guell

The Park was originally part of a commercially unsuccessful housing site. It has been converted into a municipal garden. It can be reached by underground, although the stations are at a certain distance, by the regular buses, or best by the tourist buses. While the Park is free, Gaudí's house - containing furniture that he designed - can be visited at a cost.

The design of the Park is clearly the work of an architect and Gaudí's unique style is also easily distinguishable. Wavy, lava-like shapes, at places tree-like or in form of Doric columns or stalactites, sometimes lavishly decorated with ornaments of broken ceramic fragments. The landscaping of the Park is largely in tune with the natural terrain; steep slopes and cliffs have been allowed to remain, with winding paths, cuttings and grottoes adding to the natural feel.

Gaudí's mosaic work on the main terrace

Although it sounds unlikely, the place is skillfully designed and composed to bring the peace and calm that one would expect from a park. The buildings, though very original and remarkable, are relatively (remembering other Gaudí buildings) inconspicuous. They have fantastically shaped roofs with unusual pinnacles. The focal point of the park is the main terrace, surrounded by a long bench in the form of a sea serpent. Gaudí used a naked man, sitting in clay, to design the bench. The curves form a number of enclaves, creating a more social atmosphere.

The Gaudí style is evident in the supporting columns of the walkway above.

The large cross at the Park's high-point offers the most complete view of Barcelona. It is possible to view the main city in panaroma, with la Sagrada Familia and the Montjuïc area visible at a distance.

Issue #119

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Vasco da Gama

Vasco da Gama (c. 1469December 24, 1524) was a Portuguese explorer who was the first person to sail directly from Europe to India.

Vasco da Gama

Life

From the early 15th century, the nautical school of Henry the Navigator had been extending Portuguese knowledge of the coast of Africa. From the 1460s, the goal had become one of rounding that continent's southern extremity and gaining easier access to the riches of India (mainly black pepper and other spices) through a reliable sea route instead of the costly and unsafe overland route.

Da Gama was born in Sines. He was slightly younger than 20 years old as these long-term plans were coming to fruition. Bartolomeu Dias had returned from rounding the Cape of Good Hope and exploring as far as the Fish River in modern-day South Africa, while Pero da Covilhã in India had explored south for some of the distance intervening between subcontinent and the end of explorations. It remained only for the two segments to be joined into one voyage.

This task was given to Da Gama's father, Estevão da Gama, but he died before he could begin. Vasco was then given the job on the strength of his work for the Portuguese crown along the Gold Coast of Africa. On July 8, 1497 four ships (the São Gabriel, the São Rafael, whose commander was his brother Paulo da Gama, the Berrio, and a storage ship of unknown name) left Lisbon and the voyage began.

By December 16 they had passed the Fish River and continued on into waters unknown to Europeans. With Christmas pending they gave the coast they were passing the name Natal (Christmas in Portuguese), which it retains to this day. By January they had reached modern-day Mozambique, Arab-controlled territory on the East African coast that was part of the Indian Ocean's network of trade. Having got that far, da Gama was able to employ a pilot at Malindi, who brought the expedition the rest of the way to Calicut (the exact Malayalam name is Kozhikode) on the southwest coast of India on May 20, 1498. Sometimes violent negotiations with the local ruler (the Samoothiri Raja, usually anglicized as Zamorin) ensued in the teeth of resistance from Arab merchants. Eventually da Gama was able to gain an ambiguous letter of concession for trading rights, but had to sail off without warning after the Zamorin insisted on his leaving behind all his goods as collateral. Da Gama kept his goods, but left behind a few Portuguese with orders to start a trading post.

Vasco da Gama on board a boat

Upon his return to Portugal in September 1499, da Gama was richly rewarded as the man who had brought to fruition a plan that had taken eighty years. He was given the title "Admiral of the Indian Ocean", and on February 12, 1502 he sailed again with a fleet of twenty warships to enforce Portuguese interests. Pedro Álvares Cabral had been sent out two years earlier (on which voyage he incidentally discovered Brazil, though some claim this it was intentional) and found that those at the trading post had been murdered, encountered further resistance and bombarded Calicut.

Da Gama assaulted and exacted tribute from the East African Arabian port of Kilwa, which had been one of those involved with frustrating the Portuguese; he played privateer amongst Arab merchant ships; and then finally smashed a Calicut fleet of twenty-nine ships and essentially conquered that port city. In return for peace, he received valuable trade concessions and a vast quantity of plunder that put him in extremely good favor with the Portuguese crown. Returning to Portugal, he was made Count Vidigueira out of lands that had previously belonged to the royal Bragança family.

Having acquired a fearsome reputation as a "fixer" of problems that arose in India, he was sent to the subcontinent once more in 1524. The intention was that he was to replace the incompetent Eduardo de Menezes as viceroy of the Portuguese possessions, but he died not long after arriving in Calicut. After burial for some time at St.Francis Church, Fort Kochi, Kochi, India, his remains were returned to Portugal in 1539 and re-interred in Vidigueira.

As much as anyone after Henry the Navigator, da Gama was responsible for Portugal's success as an early colonizing power. Besides the first voyage itself, it was his astute mix of politics and war on the other side of the world that placed Portugal in a prominent position in the Indian Ocean trade. The Portuguese "national epic", the Lusíadas of Luís Vaz de Camões largely concerns Vasco da Gama's voyages.

Issue #120

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Olympia

Olympia (Greek: Olympí'a or Olýmpia, older transliterations, Olimpia, Olimbia), a city of ancient Greece in Elis, is known for having been the site of the Olympic Games in classical times, comparable in importance to the Pythian Games held in Delphi. Both games were held every olympiad (i.e. every four years), the Olympic Games dating back at least as far as 776 BC. In 394 CE emperor Theodosius I abolished them.

Ruins of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, Greece

Olympia is also known for its gigantic ivory and gold statue of Zeus, made by Phidias, which was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Very close to the temple of Zeus (see photo of ruins below) which housed this statue, the studio of Phidias was excavated in the 1950s. Evidence found there such as sculptor's tools, corroborates this opinion.

Excavation of the Olympia temple district and its surroundings began with a French expedition in 1829. German archaeologists continued the work in the latter part of the 19th century. The latter group uncovered, intact, the Hermes of Praxiteles statue, among other artifacts. In the middle of the 20th Century, the stadium where the running contests took place was excavated.

The Olympic flame of the modern-day Olympic Games is lit by reflection of sunlight in a parabolic mirror at the restored Olympia stadium and then transported by a torch to the place where the games are held.

When the modern Olympics came to Athens in 2004, the men's and women's shot put competition was held at the restored stadium.

The ancient ruins sits north of the Alfeios River and lies next to Cronius or Kronios hill (the hill of Kronos, or Saturn). Kladeos, a tributary of Alfeios, flows around the area.

The town has a school and a square (plateia). Tourism is popular throughout the late-20th century. The city has a train station and is the easternmost terminus of the line of Olympia-Pyrgos (Ilia). The train station which the freight yard is west of it is about 300 m east of the town centre.

View onto the training ground from a room of the palestra.

It is linked by GR-74 and the new road was opened in the 1980s, the next stretch N and NE of Olympia will open in around 2005. Distance from Pyrgos is 20 km E (old: 21 km), about 50 km SW of Lampeia, W of Tripoli and Arcadia and 4 km north of Krestena and N of Kyparissia and Messenia. The highway passed north of the ancient ruins.

A reservoir is located 2 km southwest damming up the Alfeios river and has a road from Olympia and Krestena which in the late-1990s has been closed.

The area is hilly and mountains, most of the area within Olympia is forested.

Issue #121

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Coventry Canal

The Coventry Canal is a narrow Canal in England which travels for 38 miles (65 km) between Coventry and Fradley Junction, just north of Lichfield, where it joins the Trent and Mersey Canal. It also runs through the towns of Bedworth, Nuneaton, Atherstone, Polesworth and Tamworth.

The Coventry Canal forms part of the Warwickshire ring.

Coventry Canal near Fradley

The Route

The canal begins at a basin in the centre of Coventry, and runs north. Just north of Coventry, it forms a junction with the Oxford Canal at Hawkesbury junction, also known as "Sutton Stop". A few miles further north just outside Bedworth it connects to the Ashby Canal, then runs north-west for a number of miles through Nuneaton, Atherstone and Polesworth. At Tamworth its splits into the Birmingham & Fazeley Canal. The Coventry canal finishes at Fradley junction where it joins the Trent and Mersey Canal.

History

The Coventry Canal Company was formed in 1768 and James Brindley was commissioned to build it; work started on the canal in the December of that year.

Due to the high standards of construction demanded by Brindley, by the time the canal had reached Atherstone in 1769, the canal company had run out of money, and Brindley was sacked.

The canal remained half finished for another seventeen years, but was finally completed and opened in 1789. The canal was for many years an important artery of trade, and was nationalised in 1948, and taken over by British Waterways.

Issue #122

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Igloo

An igloo (Inuktitut iglu, "house"), translated sometimes as snowhouse, is a shelter constructed from blocks of snow, generally in the form of a dome. Igloos are most commonly associated with the indigenous Inuit of Canada's far north, where they were used as temporary shelters by hunters during the winter.

Igloo

The snow used to build an igloo must have sufficient structural strength to be cut and stacked in the appropriate manner. The best snow to use for this purpose is snow which has been blown by wind, which can serve to compact and interlock the ice crystals. The hole left in the snow where the blocks are cut from is usually used as the lower half of the shelter. Sometimes, a short tunnel is constructed at the entrance to reduce wind and heat loss when the door is opened. Due to snow's excellent insulative properties, inhabited igloos are surprisingly comfortable inside.

Central Eskimos, especially those around the Davis Strait, line the living area with skin, which can increase the temperature within from around 2°C to 10-20°C.

Architecturally, the igloo is unique in that it is a dome that can be raised out of independent blocks leaning on each other and polished to fit without an existing supporting structure.

Sideview diagram of an Igloo: opening to the right

Because "igloo", or iglu in standard orthography, is simply the Inuktitut word for a house of any kind, since the twentieth century a snowhouse in Inuktitut is frequently called an igluvigaq, or igluvigait in plural, in distinction.

Other kinds of snowhouses

For fun, or for winter camping and survival purposes, it is possible to construct a simpler but similar kind of snow shelter by simply creating a large pile of snow and excavating the inside. The snow need not be of the same quality, and the construction is easier (less experience needed). Such shelters are usually not as sturdy and permanent as proper igloos.

A nice trick to make the building of a snowhouse much quicker and less labour intense is to first make a pile of (cardboard) boxes and then cover the box pile with snow. Then cut open "the door" and pull out the boxes. This means one needs to use much less snow or one can build a much bigger snowhouse. (Old cardboard boxes can usually be acquired at the local supermarket if one asks nicely.)

To make the snowhouse much more robust and safer it is recommended to pour water over it so it gets covered in ice. This makes it harder and sturdier and also makes it slippery, which discourages kids from climbing on top of if. Kids climbing on the house are usually the only reason why snowhouses collapse. A collapsing snowhouse can be very dangerous if kids get caught inside. (By the way, pour the water after pulling out the boxes since it is very hard to cut open a door in an icy house.)

Issue #123

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The World

The World is an archipelago of artificial islands, shaped like the continents of the Earth, being constructed off the coast of Dubai. The project is inspired by the artificial Palm Islands also being built in Dubai. The World will consist of 250 to 300 smaller private artificial islands divided into four categories - private homes, estate homes, dream resorts, and community islands. The entire project is slated for completion in 2008.

The World Islands

Each island ranges from 250,000 to 900,000 square feet (23,226m² to 83,613m²) in size, with 50 to 100 metres of water between each island. The development covers an area of 9 kilometers in length and 6 kilometers in width, surrounded by an oval breakwater. The only means of transportation between the islands will be by boat and helicopter. Each island will cost an estimated average of $25 million (USD).

It is built, and is owned, by Al Nakheel Properties (Nakheel Corp).

It is located 4 kilometers off the shore of Jumeirah, close to The Palm, Jumeirah, between Burj Al Arab and Port Rashid of Dubai, United Arab Emirates.

The World is sometimes mistakenly referred to as The Palm World.

Official website

Issue #124

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Itaipu

Itaipu (Guarani: Itaipú; pronounced [itaj'pu]) is a dam that includes the largest hydroelectric power plant in the world. It is situated between Brazil and Paraguay along the Paraná River.

Itaipu Dam

The plant consists of 18 generator units of 700 MW (Megawatts) each, allowing for a total output of 12,600 MW of power, The first generators started running in May 1984 and the final generator started running on April 9, 1991. Although it is not the largest dam in the world, it has the largest generating capacity and produces the most electricity. Its generating capacity (but not its annual production of electricity) will be surpassed by China's Three Gorges Dam. Two more generator units are currently being built. When finished in the first half of 2005, Itaipu will be capable of a total output of 14,000 MW of power. The name "Itaipu" is derived from the Tupi Guarani language and means "singing stones".

It has been declared one of the modern Seven Wonders of the World by the American Society of Civil Engineers.

Division between Brazil and Paraguay

As with the division of financing, half of the generators are owned by Brazil and the other half by Paraguay. However, Paraguay sells the majority of its power to Brazil (and therefore has not had difficulty in paying for the project). Even in this configuration, the plant supplies 25% of the power consumed by Brazil and 90% of that consumed by Paraguay. Furthermore, this electricity for Paraguay is sold very cheaply and so although it is poor, its citizens can afford abundant lighting. On the other hand, Itaipu was built during the corrupt Stroessner dictatorship and so a small number of families owning large construction businesses benefitted significantly at the expense of the general population.

Power transmission

The power generated by the generators on the Paraguay side is done at a frequency of 50 Hertz, as 50 Hertz is the grid frequency of Paraguay. The generators on the Brazilian side run with the grid frequency of Brazil, which is 60 Hertz. Because Paraguay cannot consume all the energy produced by its generators, a part of it is transfered via the HVDC Itaipu to the area of São Paulo. The power generated by the Brazilian generators is transfered by 765 kV three phase AC lines to São Paulo.

Issue #125

poon cho tang SG

Rann of Kutch

The Rann of Kutch is a seasonally marshy region located in the Thar Desert biogeographic province in Gujarat state of northwestern India, which borders the Sind region of Pakistan. The name "Rann" comes from the Hindi word ran meaning "salt marsh". Kutch is the name of the district wherein it is situated. The Rann of Kutch comprises some 10,000 square miles between the Gulf of Kutch and the mouth of the Indus River in southern Pakistan. The Luni River, which originates in Rajasthan, empties into the northeast corner of the Rann.

Rann of Kutch on the Top Left. Image from NASA Earth Observatory.

In India's summer monsoon, the flat desert of salty clay and mudflats, averaging 15 m above sea level, fill with standing waters, interspersed with sandy islets of thorny scrub, breeding grounds for some of the largest flocks of Greater and Lesser flamingoes.

The area was a vast shallows of the Arabian Sea until continuing geological uplift closed off the connection with the sea, creating a vast lake that was still navigable during the time of Alexander the Great. The Ghaggar River, which presently empties into the desert of northern Rajasthan, formerly emptied into the Rann of Kutch, but the lower reaches of the river dried up as its upstream tributaries were captured by the Indus and Ganges thousands of years ago. Traces of the delta and its distributary channels on the northern boundary of the Rann of Kutch were documented by the Geologic Survey of India in 2000.

This inhospitable salty lowland, rich in natural gas and a resting site for migratory Siberian birds, is part of India and Pakistan's ongoing border dispute concerning Sir Creek. In April 1965, a dispute there contributed to the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, when fighting broke out between India and Pakistan. Later the same year, British Prime Minister Harold Wilson successfully persuaded both countries to end hostilities and set up a tribunal to resolve the dispute. The verdict saw Pakistan gaining 900 km² of the Rann of Kutch. Further border disputes broke out in 1971.

The Rann is also famous for the Indian Wild Ass sanctuary, the Little Rann of Kutch, where the last of three species of Asiatic Wild Ass (Equus hemionus khur or khar), the only ones in Asia, still exists along with wolves, foxes, jackals, chinkara gazelles, nilgai antelope and blackbucks. The Rann of Kutch is also the only place in India which plays host to migrating flamingoes.

Issue #126

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Copper Canyon

The Copper Canyon (Spanish: Barranca del Cobre) is a canyon system in the Sierra Tarahumara in the southwestern part of the state of Chihuahua in Mexico. This canyon system is larger and deeper than the Grand Canyon in the neighbouring United States, although the Grand Canyon is larger overall than any of the individual canyons of the Copper Canyon system.

The Copper Canyon

The system is transversed by the Chihuahua al Pacífico railroad, known by the nickname "Chepe." It is both an important transportation system for locals and a draw for tourists.

There are actually six separate canyons in the Copper Canyon system, each of which is spectacular in its own right. Mexico established the Parque Nacional Barranca del Cobre (Copper Canyon National Park) to showcase this remote but beautiful area.

Issue #127

poon cho tang SG

Peninsula Valdés

Peninsula Valdés is a peninsula along the Atlantic coast in the Chubut Province, Argentina. Its size is about 3,625 km².

Peninsula Valdés, photo taken during shuttle mission STS-68

Most of the peninsula is barren land with some salt water lakes. The largest of these lakes is at an elevation of about 40 m below sea level, the lowest elevation in Argentina and South America.

Peninsula Valdés is an important nature reserve which was listed as World Heritage Site by the UNESCO in 1999. The coastline is inhabited by marine mammals, like eared seals and elephant seals. Southern right whales can be found in the Golfo Nuevo between the peninsula and the Patagonian mainland. These baleen whales come here during the second half of the year, for mating and reproduction, because the water in the gulf is quieter and warmer than in the open sea. Orcas can be found off the coast, in the open sea off the peninsula. The inner part of the peninsula is inhabited by ñandúes, guanacos and maras.

Issue #128

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Dolomite

Dolomite is a mineral (formula: CaMg(CO3)2) consisting of a calcium magnesium carbonate found in crystals and in beds as dolostone. A pure form of dolostone would be rare, however; it usually intergrades with limestone and is referred to as dolomitic limestone, or in old U. S. geologic literature as magnesian limestone.

Dolomite has physical properties similar to those of the mineral calcite, but is less soluble in hydrochloric acid.

Dolomite from Touissite, Morocco

There is uncertainty as to the cause of its formation, as vast deposits are present in ancient rock, but it is very rarely found being produced in modern environments. This is referred to as the "Dolomite Problem". Dolomite accounts for about 10% of all sedimentary rock, including much that would have been produced near the surface of the Earth. However, experiments have only been able to synthesize dolomite under the high temperatures and pressures present in deeper layers.

One interesting reported case was the formation of dolomite in the kidneys of a dalmatian dog. This was believed to be due to chemical processes triggered by bacteria.

Recent research has found modern dolomite formation under anaerobic conditions in supersaturated saline lagoons along the Rio de Janeiro coast of Brazil, namely, Lagoa Vermelha and Brejo do Espinho. Similar processes have been discovered in the Coorong region of South Australia.

Dolomite is now thought to develop under these conditions only with the help of sulfate-reducing bacteria. The fact that conditions were better for the survival of these bacteria on the ancient Earth may explain the "Dolomite Problem". This joins other research in pointing out many new interesting links between large-scale geology and small-scale microbiology.

Dolomite is used as an ornamental stone and as a raw material for the manufacture of cement. It is also a source of magnesium oxide.

Issue #129

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